Facilitation · Can be integrated into sessions of varying lengths, depending on the depth of exploration and the level of skill development required.

Model I and Model II

Model I and Model II are contrasting theories-in-use developed by Chris Argyris to describe how individuals typically behave in challenging situations. Model I is characterized by defensiveness and unilateral control, while Model II emphasizes collaboration, open communication, and mutual learning.

When to use Model I and Model II

This framework is particularly useful in situations where there is conflict, mistrust, or resistance to change. It can be applied in team-building exercises, leadership development programs, and conflict resolution workshops.

How Model I and Model II works

Facilitators can use this framework to help participants identify and address their own Model I behaviors, and to develop more effective Model II approaches. Activities can be designed to promote active listening, empathy, and constructive feedback, fostering a more collaborative and learning-oriented environment.

Phases of Model I and Model II

  1. Model I: Governing Values: Model I is driven by values such as achieving my goals as I define them, winning not losing, suppressing negative feelings and appearing rational. The facilitator introduces these so participants can recognise them in their own reasoning.
  2. Model I: Action Strategies: These values lead to strategies like advocating positions without inquiry, controlling the task unilaterally, saving face and withholding information. Participants use a left-hand column case to spot what they thought but did not say.
  3. Model I: Consequences: The results are defensive relationships, low trust, little public testing of ideas and mostly single-loop learning. The group examines how their own case produced misunderstanding or escalation they did not intend.
  4. Model II: Governing Values: Model II rests on valid information, free and informed choice, and internal commitment to the choice. The facilitator presents these as the alternative and the group discusses what they would change in their case.
  5. Model II: Action Strategies: Strategies include combining advocacy with inquiry, making reasoning and assumptions explicit, sharing control and publicly testing views. Participants rewrite and rehearse the difficult conversation from their case using these moves.
  6. Model II: Consequences: Expected results are less defensive relationships, more valid information, higher trust and double-loop learning. The group reflects on what changed in the rehearsal and agrees how to practise in real work.

Key principles

  • Valid information
  • Free and informed choice
  • Internal commitment
  • Shared control and mutual influence
  • Open communication and public testing of assumptions

Best for

  • Improving interpersonal communication
  • Building trust and collaboration
  • Reducing defensiveness
  • Promoting shared leadership

Considerations

  • Requires a safe and supportive environment for participants to be vulnerable and honest
  • Can be challenging for individuals to relinquish control and embrace collaboration
  • Facilitator needs to be skilled in guiding difficult conversations and promoting empathy

Attribution & sources

Developed by Chris Argyris, 1985

Primary source

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