Facilitation · From a 60-minute meeting to a multi-session process; the groan zone may span several meetings on complex issues.

Diamond of Participatory Decision-Making (Kaner)

The Diamond from Sam Kaner and colleagues maps how a group moves from divergent thinking, through the 'Groan Zone' of misunderstanding, to convergent thinking and decision. It normalises the messy middle of group work and gives facilitators tools for each zone.

When to use Diamond of Participatory Decision-Making (Kaner)

When a group must make a decision that needs real buy-in on a complex or contested issue, and the facilitator wants to explain why the process feels messy.

How Diamond of Participatory Decision-Making (Kaner) works

Use the diamond to sequence a decision session: plan separate blocks for divergence and convergence, and build in time and activities for the groan zone rather than skipping it. Agree the decision rule before closure.

Phases of Diamond of Participatory Decision-Making (Kaner)

  1. Business as usual: The group starts with familiar opinions and quick solutions. The facilitator notices when an issue needs more than a fast decision.
  2. Divergent zone: Open up: generate options, surface diverse perspectives and suspend judgement. Use tools such as brainstorming and go-rounds.
  3. Groan zone: Confusion and frustration as people try to understand unfamiliar views. The facilitator normalises the discomfort and helps build shared understanding.
  4. Convergent zone: Narrow down: evaluate options, refine proposals and look for inclusive solutions.
  5. Closure: Reach a decision using a decision rule agreed in advance, and confirm next steps.

Key principles

  • Separate divergent and convergent thinking
  • The groan zone is normal and productive
  • Full participation leads to sustainable agreements
  • Build mutual understanding before deciding

Best for

  • Strategy and planning meetings
  • Multi-stakeholder decisions
  • Teams stuck in repeated debate
  • Teaching groups how facilitation works

Considerations

  • A map of group dynamics, not a step-by-step method; it needs tools from the same book or elsewhere for each zone.
  • Groups under time pressure often cut the groan zone, which can produce weak or unsupported decisions.
  • Works best when the decision rule and the group's authority are clear from the start.

Attribution & sources

Developed by Sam Kaner with Lenny Lind, Catherine Toldi, Sarah Fisk and Duane Berger, 1996

Primary source

Design a session with Diamond of Participatory Decision-Making (Kaner)

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